Today’s ships are technologically advanced, thus determining the importance of the continuous professional development of seafarers, as well as the importance of decision making at all levels of the crew in high risk situations in which the ship can be found.

In spite of the development of marine technology and comprehensive training for maritime professions, there are frequent ship accidents, mostly as a result of human error. Experts often associate these errors with consciousness and conscience, the psychological factors that affect deliberation and decision making.

There is a tendency to overestimate the effects of technology, which stems from ignorance, fatigue, high spirits, preoccupation with factors that are not associated with work, etc.

Therefore, it has become important to study and teach about human behaviour on board, especially about the psychological and sociological aspects.

In psychology, research and theorizing focuses on the seafarers internal states as a result of the cause-effect relationship with the environment of individuals. Moreover, sociology studies their work context, such as organizational values and norms, the structure of work positions and their roles, power and leadership relations, etc.

Because of the comprehensive approach of the mentioned disciplines, the integration of their research goals is sometimes practiced, especially in psycho-sociology as an interdisciplinary science.

The comprehensive knowledge can contribute to an optimal education and informing of the crew in relation to the marine context, which is marked by constant and rapid technological advances, and increasingly diverse interaction between men and machines during working process.

Unfortunately, despite the development of psychology and sociology over the past century, there is little interest devoted to the study of maritime affairs within these disciplines. This is confirmed by rare and unsystematic literature, the underdevelopment of psychological and sociological sub-disciplines dealing with maritime affairs, as well as their non-representation in the education of seafarers.

However, it should be noted that the maritime theme is becoming a recognized subject of sociological interest. For example, in 2013, the European Sociological Association (ESA) organized two scientific conferences in Turin and Zadar to encourage its study.

Not surprisingly, they were held in traditionally maritime countries, but it is still too little an effort for a systematic approach to maritime affairs within the psychological and sociological sciences, which can contribute to the safety and efficiency of seafarers in a changing work environment.

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS ON CHANGES IN SEAFARING

Modern technological progress has led to a significant acceleration of lifestyle, as well as to having activities in several areas simultaneously for most of time.

The former meaning of time and space have been significantly changed. “The information technology has enabled people to interact almost simultaneously in their physical and virtual space that can be found in remote areas of the world. Hence the current age is often described as a “real virtuality”,“global village” and using other similar concepts.”

The achievements of modern communication technology allow each seafarer to be informed during the voyage about everything that happens with his family and the other important social groups, while he can perform various actions such as stock tickers considerations, observation of changes in the value of shares, on-line gambling and to have fun in different ways, in short – to do lot of things that were not possible twenty years ago while he was on board.

Previously, such activities were considered as plans when docking or upon arrival home. Actually, now sailor can actively participate in all the events which he used to take during his stay on the land, during the voyage.

However, there is one particular aspect that is reflected in the fact that the seaman is isolated from his family and other common environment and cannot react the same way as when he is situated in that setting. He is often just an observer of family and other emotionally important events, which he can only participate in from a distance. This dimension was even previously in the mind of sailors, but with the difference that just rare and filtered information were coming to seafarers by letter or telegraph and less frequently by phone, which for the most of them represented an emotional protection not just from others, but from themselves. This is not irrelevant according to the research which show that maritime accidents are still very frequent although shipbuilding industry has made significant efforts to improve the structure and reliability of ships to reduce the number of accidents and the value of the damage, but also to increase the efficiency and productivity of labour compliance.

However, while the former maritime accidents were frequent due to unsafe and unequipped ships, it is clear that modern shipping technology is only one factor in the overall safety of the ship where the man and his use of technology are crucial.

In addition to complexity of maritime occupations, technology often represents a new burden and challenge for sailors which they have to cope with. “It should be noted that technology always carries specific cultural meanings. It is necessary to train for its use that often involves changes in the perception of the environment such as changes in values and normative orientation of individuals.”

Furthermore, the technology provides lot of benefits. The development of shipping industry has contributed to global connecting, technological progress, expanding markets and increasing prosperity over the last two centuries.

“Seafaring contributes to globalization so far since it is the incomparably biggest and most important segment of the transport system by the value and quantity of transported goods.”

However, the technology carries risks that can endanger people and environment if used incorrectly. In order to be able to cope with these challenges, first we need to recognize them. Technological solutions take lot of actions that previously needed to be performed slowly and with more human involvement. However, it does not relieve employees from liability of programming, monitoring, supervising and coordinating activities with other agencies responsible for boating, boarding, docking, unloading and recently an increasing defense from hijackers.

All the above shows the necessity of monitoring technological developments with the ongoing influence of consciousness and conscience. As one’s presence of mind in the act of understanding and trials, one’s conscience (Latin Conscientia) is a subjective judgment about the morality of the desired act. It is the last standard that should be followed during the operation. This is allowed by morality, a psychological function, which enables one to impose and comply with value norms, but also to insist on self-punishment in the case of non-compliance.

His rules of conduct, man learns through his interaction with the outside world (environment), through a life-long process of socialization, in which he learns specifics of the society in which he lives. In time, he develops his identity through the internalization of values and norms, and when he starts to understand them as a part of himself, he holds to them firmly, seldom breaking them. During this process, in parallel, he develops his conscience according to the ethical principles, i.e. that which society comprehends as good and desirable.

Nevertheless, there are different reason behind why people, frequently or not, act in discordance with the established values and rules (hindered accomplishment of goals, quick social changes without the ability to adapt to them instantly, labelling individuals as deviant, which results in their association with other problematic individuals and groups, etc), which “society sanctions informally (rebuke, avoidance, etc) or formally (fines, prison, etc.) if such behaviour is recognized, depending on the severity of the deed”.

As a result of some kind of experiential (perceptional) integration and stabilization, consciousness (Latin Notitia) is correlated with morality and conscience, as well as the outside world. It shapes our experiences and distinguishes us from other living beings.

Obviously, it is not enough to be a good and experienced naval officer (be it captain or sailor) because the professional changes are such that one can always expect to make some significant errors in the evaluation and work during his career.

Therefore, we need to constantly contemplate our actions and adapt ourselves to the changing environment.

THE ROLE OF CONSCIENCE IN MODERN SEAFARING  

As a conscious being, human being has the ability to self-observation which means the ability to control and express procedures. Its review is often called the “voice of conscience” which is also referred as “practical reason”, which means that we explain, justify and analyse our actions.

Thus, conscience occurs simultaneously with observation as a functional analysis. Human being should perform tasks according to his conscience that is unconditionally connected to his duty, as a good and desirable action toward his environment.

Conscience is similar to a legal process and is often referred to as the inner judge. It arbitrates and imposes punishment often requiring a change in behaviour.

Since conscience is a subjective category, it is frequently repressed when people do not show remorse for their actions. “However, human being is a social being and he is liable to justify his arguments to others with their consciences.”.

The accident on a cruiser Costa Concordia suggests many questions about captain’s, officer’s and the rest of the crew’s conscience who had left the ship without care for the passengers.

Stranding on the Italian island Giglio rocks in early 2012, thirty-two passengers lost their lives. The captain did not call for help until the Livorno port authority compelled him to do so and to take command of evacuation.

Many examples show that maritime accidents are often caused by human error and that the malpractice after an accident leads to serious consequences. “More than 6000 people die on the sea everyday. An average of five shipwreck occur and take many human lives, permanently damaging the flora and fauna and causing significant economic losses.”

Some of the most distinct maritime accidents caused by careless actions are the sinking of the tanker Dona Paz in 1987, which collided with another tanker where the overcrowded boat killed 4341 people; the sinking of the Kursk submarine in 2000 that killed 118 crew members who lived a few days after the accident, but the Russian government has hesitated to seek international help, believing that they would rescue sailors; the sinking of the overcrowded ferry Jool in 2002 that killed more than 1000 passengers who rushed to one side in order to shelter from the oncoming storm.

Many other maritime accidents are associated with matters of conscience. Besides all the technical and technological improvements, the security on the modern ship is not satisfactory due to fact that 96% of the accidents are caused by the error of the crew of which 71% goes to management errors and 29% to the operational errors. They usually arise from multiple factors such as the dominant communication of the company in relation to the ship’s crew who passively complies with its demands, usually against their better judgement, the negative impact of arbitrary leadership on board with the crew uncritically meeting the requirements of the authority, excessive feeling of ability and the impact of modern technology which is used uncritically with susceptibility to technical and technological solutions.

One of the key factors that contribute to the large number of maritime accidents is certainly crew fatigue caused by excessive work, lack of sleep and its poor quality, stress, insufficient leisure time between periods of work and other factors.

Moreover, fatigue can be associated with development of technology that intensifies naval activity in terms of frequent short trips when crews work more than 12 hours per day, shorter stops in ports for loading and unloading of goods and people, frequent inspections and long-term reduction of crew.

Furthermore, the technology provides numerous opportunities for crew during leisure (playing computer games, surfing the Internet, communication with their families and friends, etc.) and thus contributes to fatigue as it may interfere when working.

However, it should be noted that technological advances have contributed to the overall development of our civilization and therefore the maritime industry which is reflected in the quality of today’s ships, sailor’s equipment, increasingly important and differentiated education for this activity, the quality of life on board, etc.

One should not ignore the danger of technology, which is consistent with the fact that it is a cultural product for who’s design man has a crucial impact, but on the other hand it changes society and people- their consciousness, values , norms and understanding of conscience.

Due to rapid development of technology, we are often in opportunity to let it manage everything for us. But is it always advisable to do this without supervision? Of course it is not due to the fact that technology does not have the intelligence and cannot make the best decisions in unforeseen situations.

Therefore, we need to constantly review the adverse effect of routine, monotony and the sense of power that can abate the observation and perception of certain signals. If everything repeatedly passes smoothly without problems, do we feel too relaxed? If so, it is conscience that springs to prevent us from the inappropriate relaxation.

Responsibility for human lives, the environment, property and all that we are entrusted with the management and usage should design not only knowledge but also the conscience, experience and skills that a person should have to deal with when seafaring.

THE EMOTIONAL IMPACTS ON CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONSCIENCE

The function of one’s conscience is essentially active in human conscious and unconscious actions. Conscientious people act automatically according to their ethical standards that lead them in various activities. Occasionally, however, they think about the attitude that needs to be built in relation to a particular person or a given situation, including orders.

Then the conscience is part of self-awareness and fully participates in the creation of the attitude that will be taken. Consciousness is one of the psychological concepts that cannot be directly seen or touched, yet it is more difficult to describe, but for most people it implies a reality that can be shared with others. We are not always aware of sensory stimuli. It may also happen that we are not aware of the effects of stimulus if we do not pay attention, but it does not mean that they do not participate in shaping.

In addition, everyone has a sense of self, others, things and events so we need to agree on common positions - especially if it is a duty. Discussion and agreement cannot be easily replaced by any technology or virtual world.

On the other hand, even though we are different, which is reflected in a variety of situations and relationships with different people, for most people there is a continuity of experience of their own personality. A large part of that continuity has emotional qualities and includes our relationship with other people, which is reflected in the form of general kindness, melancholy, shy demeanour, aggressive behaviour, etc. It is important to be aware that the emotional states can largely or decisively impact on the human experience, abilities and mindset.

Lieberman and Eagly, describe two types of processing arguments. One is systematic – one carefully examines the validity of the argument. Another includes shortcuts - it is superficial, much less careful and includes responses to a less important aspects of communication such as a personality or reputation of a person that gives an argument, not the validity of the argument. Other experts consider that people in a good mood follow shortcuts, while neutral or negative mood incline systematic deliberation of arguments.

In other words, instead of thinking, we often use the entrenched cliché and find it as an answer to a question or problem. Instead of stimulating our creativity, we hide behind the routine. In situations which require greater commitment, vigilance, attention and control increases the risk of overlooking important new elements that can significantly affect the conscientious performance of duty.

The systematic consideration of arguments and circumstances is particularly important in those areas (organizations) which are exposed to constant change and uncertainty, where the ship is certainly one of them.

Although there are cultural differences that affect decision-making, whereby “Westerners are more individualistic unlike Easterners that focus on collective and group evaluation, modern maritime occupations encourage initiative and the crew is chosen according the criteria of cultural coherence that allows functioning without major difficulties in communication and work”.

Importance of individuality as well as teamwork, responsibility and unity among the members are emphasized. Their characteristics, knowledge and skills are essential for successful business, based on the continuous improvement of individuals and the collective progress of “learning organization” through its members in order to successfully adapt to the overall changes.

Generally speaking, in all judgments we use incomplete knowledge and in such circumstances the judging process includes other elements. If you feel optimistic, it will affect your judgments. Good qualities and positive concepts are more easily available. Appending the effect by which every episode in memory is marked as one that has made us happy, sad, angry, etc., when we make a judgment our mood can act as a piece of information.

It is important not to forget that there is conscience besides consciousness that we have to consciously invite for help when taking the final attitude.

CONCLUSION

The way we access the problem is essential to our efficiency in its resolving. Our conscious action should be conscientious. In other words, it should be morally acceptable for us and others. Certainly, there are other factors that affect the efficiency in resolving problems such as the level of expertise, possibility of insight into the problem, etc.

When information is relatively unknown or unclear, emotional states have particular importance in human actions. With the impact of mood, people act systematically (in desolate or neutral mood) or by following shortcuts (in a good mood) that include routinely actions without much thought. Thoughtless action leaves considerable consequences for humans and environment, especially where changes are frequent, such as sailing.

Although marine technology is constantly advancing, accidents are still frequent and usually caused by error of the crew. Therefore, in the era of new knowledge and new technologies, it is essential to underline the key role of consciousness and conscience in controlling and responsible usage of technological advances in the current and future maritime activity.

Shipping companies could hardly survive without management, given that today they are facing many challenges while doing business in the global market, and management is key to duly adapting to their business environment. The success of shipping companies, today more than ever, is a result of the management's effectiveness.

The management of human resources, intellectual capital and knowledge, that is, intangible assets that elude

the standard accounting and economic analysis and balance sheet are becoming the dominant issue of the modem management. One of the most important tasks of a modern manager is to motivate its co-workers, that is, to inspire other people, and this often depends on his/her charisma and personal characteristics.

Ship management has a significant role when it comes to the achieving objectives set by shipping companies.

Ship management (management onboard) is specific in its position and importance in the management system

of shipping companies, it falls under the operational level of the shipping company management. Observed

from the point of view of the management structure of a shipping company, the majority of time is spent on

leadership, that is, on performing the management function of leading. Furthermore, to achieve the set operational objectives, a part of the time has to be spent to perform management functions such as planning,

staffing and controlling.

The success of ship management largely depends on the successfulness of the management process at the

level of shipping companies, that is, from the top to mid management. If the stated management functions

are used correctly by the companies at all levels, than the ship management will be effective and successful

because it is a part of the managing process.

Ship management is a specific kind of management; different form other types of "land" management,

because it takes place under special ship conditions, mostly at sea. The key aspect to the ship management process is working with others and helping others, with limited resources and in a changing environment. In this way operational goals set by the annual plans of shipping companies are achieved.

In this blog all aspects of the management process from the point of view of a shipping company will be analysed, followed by the analysis of "ship management" and its role in business activities of a shipping company.

Ship management is a specific issue that can be discussed only through the shipping company management with which it is closely connected. A definition of ship management will be provided; its role and hierarchy level in the process of shipping company management will be clarified, as well as the use of management

functions in this sense.

THE ROLE OF JMANAGEMENT IN COMPANY BUSINESS

We live in a world characterized by globalization and information technology, rapid and substantial

changes in the environment that require both from individuals, as well as from companies and the whole society to change their business philosophies and orientation towards their core business while at the same time outsource some other activities. As a result, network and virtual organizations are being established, that is, companies without borders. In such a world managers also face new challenges.

Modern companies could hardly survive without management because there are many challenges resulting from the environment that they face today. High quality management is crucial to be able to adapt constantly to such a dynamic environment.

The success of companies, today more than ever, is a result of the effectiveness of the management. Just as there is no recipe or general strategy that could guarantee a company's success, there is no recipe for successful management. Just as the grounds for success of each company are unique, so are the theory and practice of management at each company. How could we otherwise explain so different business results

achieved by companies belonging to the same branch of economy that do business under the

same market conditions ?

The simplest way to define management is as an activity aimed at achieving specific, pre-set objectives, or at activities of other people. Management is the process of guiding the behaviour of others towards the execution of certain tasks. One of the most common definitions of management is that it is a process of coordinating the factors of production or business with the purpose of achieving certain goals.

American Kreitner defines management as - the process of working with and through others to achieve organizational objectives in a changing environment and with the efficient and effective use of limited resources.

Modern management emphasizes the importance of "soft variables", unlike the earlier stages

in the development of management when the focus was on "hard variables". The soft variable includes people employed at a company, their knowledge and abilities, as well as management styles, unlike the hard variable

that includes strategies, structures, sizes, technologies, planning, control etc.

The management of human resources, intellectual capital and knowledge, that is, of intangible assets that elude the standard accounting and economic analysis and balance sheet are becoming the dominant issue and key task of management.

THE ROLE OF MANAGERS IN COMPANY BUSINESS

Just as there is no management without managers, there is also no successful management without Creative, capable and talented managers. Only those managers who have expressed individuality and innovation capabilities can rise to the challenges of the environment awaiting, not only today, but even to a larger extent

in the future.

One of the most important tasks of a modern manager is to motivate its co-workers, that is, to inspire other people, and this often depends on his/her charisma and personal characteristics. Modern managers need to primarily know how to motivate, coordinate and interconnect these different individuals, whether they are

part of production or services .

This means that a modern manager, after winning a battle in the external environment, has to "return" to his/her company and focus on harmonizing the relations between employees, that is remove weaknesses of internal environment with the goal of survival, growth and development of the company.

Modern manager varies from the classical also by the fact that he/she does not focus on the search for an ideal company organizational structure, but rather on the management in accordance with a changing environment and conditions set by the competition.

MANAGEMENT OF SHIPPING COMPANIES

Modern shipping companies are founded as corporations, that is, as joint stock companies or limited liability companies, while the ownership function is usually achieved through a general meeting(Board of Directors) or supervisory board.

It is important to note that in the current management system of shipping companies, functions owner - entrepreneur - manager - worker are completely separated, meaning that the supervisory board leaves the entire leading process to the management, as well as the coordination of specific functions (to lower management structures). These are the management of commercial transactions, management of technical

affairs, management of accounting and financial affairs etc.

Only the functional operations of a shipping company are discussed in this blog, briefly because the ship management most often interacts with these functions while performing duties and tasks that are directly related to maritime transport.

Management of commercial transactions

Commercial transactions management -that is, the organizational function of commercial transactions needs to secure revenues to the shipping company usually through revenues generated by a specific ship; organization and management of various costs of ship management and voyage.

Sales function of the shipping company is of extreme importance, given that this particular function enables the shipping company to conduct its core business, the sale of shipping capacities, that is, transport.

Commercial transactions include the chartering department and operational department.

Chartering department mainly deals with the sale of shipping capacity and that by: chartering their own shipping capacity worldwide; taking on additional capacities and chartering for its own account; monitoring chartering competition on the global market; the research of the global chartering market, and consequently

creating conditions for the development of new projects working closely with the development function of the shipping company.

The managers of chartering departments should have constant insight in all relevant market movements. For a large part of the activities, the manager has to have professional qualifications of a broker in order to successful perform very complex and expert activities relating to the sales function in the chartering department.

Operational department deals with: control of rent collection; billing for damages caused to stevedoring companies aboard, as well as other claims; communication with the ship command; issuing of instruction on charters, communication with agents, as well as their nomination; cost control; bunker orders (i.e. fuel: MDO -

marine diesel oil ; IFO - Intermediate fuel oil); ship registration and such like.

Management of technical affairs

Management of technical affairs - that is, the organizational function of technical affairs in every shipping company is one of its key organizational parts, since it deals with complex technical issues, personnel administration as well as insurance issues.

The department of technical issues deals with: equipping of new ships; technical correctness of ships - conducts consultations with operators and officers aboard concerning any technical problems; supervises technical documentation of ship equipment and the engine; controls the validity of ship certificates; supervises ship maintenance; supervises operational data, procurement and control of oil, greases and suchlike;

supervises equipment and spare parts; organizes various repair and maintenance works, docking, sale and purchase of spare parts; supervises costs etc.

The department of personnel administration deals with: appointment of ship managers - captain and Chief engineer and ask them to evaluate the quality of crew on quarterly basis; analysis of the quality of the crew, recruiting, crew selection, crew development; employment contracts, and suchlike

In maritime countries, seafarers are employed on fixed term, based on standardized forms of recognized

maritime association (primarily ITF), while administrative and other personnel on land is employed on indefinite term. Therefore the main task of the personnel administration is to ensure a sufficient number of

professional and qualified workers for all activities of the maritime transport process of the shipping company in a timely manner.

The Insurance Department deals with: the hull and machinery insurance that covers the damages to the construction of the ship itself; insurance through P & 1 clubs  that covers everything not covered by the hull and machinery insurance (crew, cargo); insurance covering various risk at the seat of the shipping company.

Once to twice a year, the captain and chief engineer visit the seat of the shipping company to hold short consultation during which their positions are harmonized with those of the function managers, inspector and specific services for successful achievement of annual and operation goals.

Management of financial and accounting affairs

Management of financial and accounting affairs - that is, the organization function of financial and accounting affairs is conducted through financial, accounting and control activities. Their basic task is to collect and provide information on the maritime transport process in monetary terms.

The Finances Department deals with:

• financing activities in the national currency

and

• foreign currency

Financing activities in the national currency include: treasury operations; banking operations; domestic payment operations; crediting operations; financial now monitoring; following and implementing the domestic regulations concerning financing etc.

Foreign currency operations include: payment transactions abroad (foreign banks, shipping agents abroad etc.); arrangement and repayments of foreign loans, payment of shipping representatives abroad, settlement of travel expenses of seafarers and other bills of employees aboard, control and settlement of agents' bills

from foreign ports and suchlike.

The Accounting Department deals with: the monitoring of revenues and expenditure at the company level and its functional parts; compiling financial reports (profit and loss account, balance sheet, cash flow, reports on financial results and suchlike); payroll, calculation of costs (transport costs) and sale price (freight) of maritime transport service per transport unit etc.

Control Department deals with: the comparison of planned and achieved results and informs the relevant management thereon, the establishment of standards; performance measurement - whether the established standards are achieved or not, comparison of performance with standards, evaluation of performances

and implementation of measures to solve the problems etc. The control of the entire maritime transport

process in monetary terms is crucial to secure the continuity of the process.

SHIP-BOARD MANAGEMENT

Ships are self-propelling waterborne units, intended for the transport of goods, liquids, gases and people by sea, rivers and lakes.

A ship, with the exception of the warship, is any waterborne craft intended for seagoing navigation, exceeding 12 m in length and a gross tonnage of 15 tons, or authorized to carry more than 12 passengers. There are passengers' ships, cargo ships, technical waterborne crafts, fishing vessels, public service ships and research

vessels.

Ship management is specific in its position and importance in the management system of shipping companies; it falls under the operational level of the shipping company management (so called low management).

Shipping activities can be performed at management, working and auxiliary level of responsibility.

The management responsibility level is linked to the rank of the ship captain, chief mate, chief engineer and second engineer that it, to the management of all or particular, defined activities aboard.

The basic profit-making units of shipping companies are ships. Their management and organizational structure differs from the land structure that is the structure of their home company. On such a specific unit as a ship, only mechanistic and functional organizational structure can be implemented.

Ship management structure - consists of:

deck:

• captain - chief (top) manager on the ship and direct representative of the shipping company, person in charge of the ship.

• chief deck officer - manger of middle (tactical level), directly responsible to the captain The person responsible in terms of cargo operations, as well as maintenance. The chief deck officer is the first deputy

captain, senior to other officers and the entire deck crew (bosun, steersmen, sailors and cadets). The chief deck officer takes over the command of the ship in case the captain cannot perform this duty. He is also senior to the support personnel (the so called white personnel), cooks and waiters, who are in charge of meals, cleaning and hygiene maintenance of the crew's living quarters.

engine:

• chief engineer - manger of middle (tactical level), directly responsible to the captain.The person responsible for functioning of the main and auxiliary machinery, as well as for the maintenance of all engineering equipment aboard. He is senior to all junior officers, as well as to the rest of the engineer

personnel (electrician, mechanic, oilers, cleaners, engine assistants).

• second engineer - manger of the middle (tactical level), first in line after the chief engineer, takes over the management duties in case the chief engineer cannot perform his duty. The person responsible for maintaining ship machinery and equipment onboard.

The management pyramid onboard consist of:

• captain is the top ship manger, that is, he represent the top management level within the ship management. He grants the type and quantity of cargo that can be loaded and the route of the ship.

• chief deck officer, chief engineer, second engineer represent the middle management level within the ship management, plans, organizes and controls the forthcoming voyages, that is, in which way the cargo should be arranged and handled, how much fuel and grease is needed for the forthcoming voyages, and whether the

water generators are capable of enduring the entire voyage etc.

• navigation supervision officer, navigation supervision officer in the engine room, a member of the navigation supervision and member of navigation supervision in the engine room represent the operational level, sometimes called the executional level or the base whose role it is to put the plan into action, for example to prepare storage room or tanks (clean them after transports and prevent contamination of goods) for undisturbed loading. Furthermore, in this (low) pyramid base there is a manager (bosun) who determines in which way the tasks assigned by the mid manager will be accomplished.

The above mentioned indicates that the ship management spends the most time on performing the leading function, if observed from the point of view of the management structure of the shipping company, because it achieves it operational goals by transporting cargo. Furthermore, to achieve the set operational objectives,

a part of the time has to be spent on the functions of planning, staffing and controlling of ship processes.

Ship organization structure - consists of two main and one support organization unit. The main organizational units are the activities of the deck and the engine room, while the support activities are the activities connected to the personnel care.

Deck crew - the main activities of the workers on the deck are to take care of cargo operations, as well as to maintain ship parts exposed to the weather and the sea.

Engine crew - the main activities of the workers in the engine department are care and maintenance of the engine, generators, as well as of all other mechanical moving parts of the vessel 24 hours a day.

Support personnel - the main activities of the support personnel are preparing meals for the crew and maintenance of hygiene in the living quarters of the crew. To sum up, its main concern is to maintain the standard of living aboard at a high level.

Exclusively the ship top management participates in the ship's communication, that is, all messages (by phone, telefax, telex and email) come addressed to the captain, regardless of their end recipient, and in the same manner they address the ship in the name of the captain.

The most common type of communication is by email, between the ship and the ownership company, current charter and human resources, if they are not managed by the shipping company, but by another company appointed by the shipping company to handle exclusively personnel administration. Furthermore, communication with the suppliers, agents, as well as other parties interested in the current business

activities of the ship takes place as well.

The main characteristic of communication onboard the ship is at the same time subordination and consultation with one's junior crew member.

Personnel administration is of high importance in the ship activities. Special services on land are in charge of personnel administration, which are either a part of the shipping company or separate companies that deal with this as their core business.

Due to specific working and living conditions, the personnel is alternates in accordance to a pre-set schedule (contract in duration of 3, 6 or 9 month), and middle rank managers are in charge of monitoring personnel

onboard - chief officer and chief engineer, each in its own domain and department (deck, catering, engine).

Quarterly or upon crew shift, reports on the quality of the personnel onboard are sent to the shipping company, and if necessary, personnel are substituted even before the expiry of the contract.

The captain is at the top as the supreme authority onboard, at the same time as the representative of the shipping company, focused on external representatives.

Authoritative leadership model is the one present onboard. Solely by the fact that each aspect of work is well-known and established, there is no room for any sort of democratic leadership structure, rather it all comes down to command and execution.

This blog has tried to define ship management as specific in its position and significance, and as belonging

to the operational level (the so called low management) of the management of shipping companies.

To achieve operational goals set by the shipping companies, out of the mentioned management functions used in the management process, the ship management mostly uses the function of leading, which complies with the theoretical assumptions and practical experience.

Besides the function stated, it also uses, to a lesser degree, the functions of staffing and controlling.

The success of ship management largely depends on the successfulness of the management process at the level of shipping companies, that is, from the top to mid management. If the stated management functions are used correctly by the companies at all levels, than the ship management will be effective and successful because it is a part of the managing process.

Optimising a vessel’s route based on environmental information such as wind, waves and current patterns can lower fuel consumption and decrease delays while also reducing structural and cargo damage claims. Weather routing software products utilize not only weather and oceanographic data but also the hydrodynamic details of the vessel to provide the ship’s crew with real-time ship-specific routing advice. The Blog refers to software characteristics and benefits of voyage optimization.

The resolution A.528 (13) adopted by IMO in 1983 recognizes that weather routeing, by which ships are provided with "optimum routes" to avoid bad weather, can aid safety. It recommends Governments to advise ships flying their flags of the availability of weather routeing information, particularly that provided by services listed by the World Meteorological Organization.

The use of modem electronics for navigation such as GPS and ECDIS has significantly improved the safety of navigation. Still, strategic weather routing and hull engine monitoring are needed to plan and execute safe and efficient passages across the ocean.

The effort to develop an onboard guidance system started in the late 1970s when shipboard computers were first introduced in order to bring sea keeping knowledge to ships at sea.

Several attempts were later made to develop commercial systems for the shipping industry.

The wind and wave forecast limitations, the high cost of computers and the lack of an effective communications system explain why these early systems were not widely accepted by shipping companies as a cost-effective means of reducing damage.

Since then the weather routing systems evolved tremendously, from simple weather routing (weather forecasts converted to routing recommendations, neglecting vessel details) to more complex decision supporting systems.

The latter take into account the vessel’s behaviour in poor weather situations (computed with hydrodynamic methods) in addition to weather and oceanographic conditions.

PRINCIPLES OF WEATHER ROUTING

Climatological maps and tables are used when planning a route. Climate routes reflect the seasonal variation of tropical and extra tropical storm tracks, monsoon regimes, wind speed and direction, wave height frequencies and ice limits, areas of high swell, sea ice limits and prevailing ocean currents, for the major ocean basins of the world.

All this information are contained in nautical publications such as: Pilot Chart Atlases, the Sailing Directions (Planning Guides), maps included in the Ocean Passages of the world publication, the Pilot books and other climatological sources.

When the voyage starts, the short term weather variability plays an important role. Two strategies can then be used: the ship can first follow the climate route and deviate if the weather becomes better or worse or can first follow the shortest track and deviate if the weather becomes worse.

The shipmaster has to take the final decision in the actual and forecasted operating condition which requires different sources of information such as the weather charts, the meteorological warnings, the operational conditions, the ship design characteristics etc.

All this information has to be carefully balanced and analysed to formulate an unambiguous advice on optimum speed or heading, change of loading condition or settings of active roll stabilizers.

The situations become complicated if routing considering safety and economy happen to conflict. Without a reliable decision support system it is difficult to judge the conditions in an objective manner, in particular during night.

Weather routing software represents a very useful support system due to its different tools that provide avoidance of bad weather, optimized routing advice and optimized speed along the route, monitoring of chartered vessels for speed claims, reduced risk of damage to cargo, vessel and persons and reduced propulsion power demand.

Two general types of routing services have been identified by Bowditch, 2002(in The American Practical Navigator: An epitome of navigation) :

the first provides forecast conditions and computes routing recommendations, which are then broadcast to the vessel; the second assembles and processes weather and sea condition data and transmits this to ships at sea for on-board processing and generation of route recommendations.

The former system allows for greater computer power to be applied to the routing task because powerful computers are available ashore. The latter system allows greater flexibility to the ship’s master in changing parameters, evaluating various scenarios, selecting routes and displaying data.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ON BOARD ROUTING SOFTWARES

The Ship-board Weather Routing systems (SWR) are easy-to-handle systems. Various types are developed in the previous years, for example: BonVoyage System developed by Applied Weather Technology, Inc., Vessel Optimization and Safety System (VOSS) developed by Ocean Systems Inc. and Oceanweather Inc., and Vessel and Voyage Optimization Solution (VVOS) developed by Jeppesen Marine Inc. a Boeing company.

These ship board weather systems provide decision support for the navigator regarding optimum speed and course based on limit values for relevant ship response.

Furthermore, forecasted weather information is processed onboard to enable active planning of the route. The weather routing systems are and most probably will be further upgraded with fuel consumption modules in relation to the demand for practical guidance to reduce fuel consumption in waves. This also could lead to the reduction of the emissions of CO2, NOX and SOX.

The BonVoyage System provides the most recent weather and ocean data to the ship by broadband or email communications in a compressed format in order -to minimize communications costs. The captain can view and interpret the information due to the fact that the data are presented under the form of maps and graphics. The system also includes an algorithm that allows the delivery of estimates of fuel cost and time en-route( http://www.awtworldwide.com/products/bon-voyage-system.asp).

The forecasts are of higher confidence for voyages of over 10 days due to the high-resolution of wind and wave data. These data provide better simulation and allow ship captains to take advantage of small variations in wind and wave to make safer route plans. Ship safety is improved due to the wave forecasts (72 hours) of the areas where a freak wave is most likely to occur. BonVoyage (BVS) is a helpful tool due to the prediction of speed loss (issued from its model on climatological ship resistance) and specific vessel consumption.

In May 2012 the BonVoyage System was integrated with Transas' Electronic Chart Display Navigation System (ECDIS) to help captains fully optimize their voyage planning. This allows now the data transfer from BVS to Transas Navi-Sailor ECDIS and vice-versa. In December 2013 BonVoyage System has been integrated with UKHO’s Admiralty e-Navigator and ChartCo’s Passage manager and has therefore the capability to interchange track waypoints with the above mentioned systems.

The combination between the BonVoyage System and the Ship route advisory Services allows the transfer of route data between ship and shore, a graphical depiction of weather, routes and currents through BVS, detailed current data with tidal streams, 16 day forecast 4 times a day etc.( http://www.marinelink.com/news/integrated-routing344434.aspx)

The Vessel Optimization and Safety System (VOSS) from Ocean Systems Inc. and Oceanweather Inc. is another provider of weather and oceanographic conditions forecast; global wind and wave models are generated for 10 days of forecast 365 days a year (as shown in below figure).

The twice daily forecast is available on 1.25 x 2.5 degree Lon/Lat global grid with update of global circulation -currents. Data include tropical cyclone tracks, 500 hPa heights, surface pressure, wind speed and direction and 3 -ave trains. Accuracy of the forecast is enhanced by real-time ingestion of satellite altimeter/ scatterometer wind and wave measurements (as shown in below figure), ocean buoys and ship observations, as well as by experienced meteorologists.

The VOSS system also provides customized ship response predictions with user specified loading conditions. The ship motion program takes into account voluntary speed reduction based on vessel motions propeller/engine limitations, allows user to simulate multiple routes for comparison. It also predicts roll and pitch motion, accelerations, slamming, bending moment, shear force, speed, power and RPM using forecast or user input sea and swell conditions.

Another algorithm is offered within this system for minimum time and minimum cost routes over a range of arrival times without exceeding the Safe Operating Envelope (SOE).

The Vessel and Voyage Optimization Solution (VVOS) from Jeppesen Marine Inc. a Boeing company is another weather routing system which automatically generates a full range of optimized routes for balancing trade-offs between ETA and fuel consumption; it also optimizes to minimum fuel speed plan for required arrival time and also realizes a comparison of VVOS optimal speed management to traditional strategies such as constant speed or “sprint and loiter”(www.jeppesen.com/marine) . The simulation tools facilitate the analysis of any route using high-resolution forecast weather to weigh trade-offs among ETA, fuel consumption, ship motions, hull stresses, and weather and sea conditions. The high resolution forecasts of wind, wave and ocean current are for 15 days.

The most efficient routes are identified due to the fact that the system utilizes a just-in time operating strategy that avoids wasting fuel with sprint and loiter alternatives. The routing support from experienced ship masters is available 24/7/365. The system also ensures a route import/export in 20 different ECDIS formats, improving workflow and reducing mistakes.

The Vessel and Voyage Optimization Solution includes a guidance system that recommends speed and heading changes to manage ship motions and help minimize heavy weather damage; this is due to the use of hydrodynamic modelling, optimization algorithms and high-resolution ocean forecasts. VVOS includes a detailed, ship-specific model of user’s ship motion, engine and propeller characteristics. This ship model computes the speed made good under forecast wind, wave and ocean current conditions at a given engine power and propeller RPM, as well as ship motion limitations uniquely defined for each ship. The system also delivers accurate ETA predictions. At sea, ships download the latest ocean area forecasts via satellite communication. Masters can update and re-optimize passage plans as new forecasts become available or operational requirements change during a passage.

Waves forecast

Route selection and surveillance depend on all of the environmental factors but wind and wave’s optimization effect is the most important process in obtaining an optimum routing.

Waves forecast improved due to the refinement of short term numerical weather prediction forecast systems and their extension into the medium range and to the development of global spectral wave prediction models.

Over most of the global oceans there are few wave measurement sites available for model verification. Therefore, satellite radar altimeter estimates of significant wave heights are used (The significant wave height (Hs) is defined traditionally as the mean wave height (trough to crest) of the highest third of the waves (H1/3). The term is historical as this value appeared to be well correlated with visual estimates of wave heights from experienced observer, as also depicted in the previous figure)

Most measuring devices estimate the significant wave height from a wave spectrum; satellite radar altimeters are unique in measuring directly the significant wave height thanks to the different time of return from wave crests and troughs within the area illuminated by the radar.

As shown in first figure Significant wave height and direction, Oceanweather Inc. Modern ocean wave prediction systems can also estimate freak (rogue) wave events. This waves’ height is at least 2 times higher than the significant waves

New characteristics: avoidance of the Emission Control Areas (ECAs)

The latest version of the BonVoyage System allows the management of the voyage track by displaying ECA zones and making them “no-go” areas. Captains can see their voyage track outside and inside the ECA zones.

Simply moving waypoints in BVS allows them to visualize the impact of time in the ECA zone and compare it to the overall effect of time en route. With BVS’s ECA zone calculation tools, informed decisions can be adopted about how much time to sail inside or outside these zones. The goal is therefore to give captains and ship operators the data they need to manage voyage costs while complying with IMO regulations.

On August 1, 2012, North America Emissions Control Area (ECA) zones become enforceable. The regulation is part of Annex VI to the MARPOL Convention titled “Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships”. The regulation dictates that the ECA Zones extend up to 200 nautical miles from coasts of the United States and Canada, including a portion of the Hawaiian Islands. In the ECA Zones, ships are required to burn fuel with sulphur content not exceeding 1.00%. Notable exceptions to this area are the Aleutian Islands and Arctic waters of North America.

CONCLUSIONS

The ship-board weather routing systems intend to enhance the ship’s and crew safety at sea and to gain operational benefits by reducing repair times, reduced fuel expenses and less cargo claims.

The more advanced ship-board weather systems process weather data comprising wind and seaway information to continuously compute the ship’s response during the voyage. The technology still undergoes extensive development. Besides wind and wave forecasts, voyage optimization should also take into account sea surface currents since they can significantly impact ship speed and fuel consumption.

High resolution global circulation models enhanced by satellite measurements can now produce accurate depictions of major currents and eddies daily. Further advancements in meteorology are expected, especially in the forecast computer models, which will extend the time range and accuracy of the dynamic and statistical forecasts. Response models for sea-keeping and resistance in waves will be customised to individual ships and routes, which will be achieved by utilizing real-time and historical data with self-learning algorithms.